Those who believe that national identity has its roots in much earlier periods point to the fact that there are many examples of people in pre-modern times who identified with their nation. For example, the ancient Greeks and Romans had a strong sense of national identity, and they fought wars to defend their nations.

I believe that both sides of this argument have merit. It is true that the modern nation-state is a relatively recent invention, but it is also true that there are many examples of people in pre-modern times who identified with their nation. I think that national identity is a complex phenomenon that has evolved over time.

In terms of other kinds of identity that competed with national identity in European history, these could include:

• Regional identity: People may have identified with their region, such as their province or their city.
• Religious identity: People may have identified with their religion, such as Christianity or Islam.
• Ethnic identity: People may have identified with their ethnicity, such as being Irish or Italian.
• Class identity: People may have identified with their social class, such as being a peasant or a nobleman.

These different kinds of identity could sometimes conflict with each other. For example, a person might identify with their region and their religion, but these two identities might not always be compatible. In such cases, people might have to choose which identity was more important to them.

The relative importance of different kinds of identity has changed over time. In the early modern period, religious identity was often the most important identity for people. However, in the 19th century, national identity became increasingly important, and it has remained so ever since.