Introduction

Grafted grapevine rootstocks are a valuable tool for controlling the growth of grapevines. In this study, the response of grafted grapevine rootstock on scion at physiological, biochemical and molecular level was investigated. It was found that grafting had no significant effect on osmotic potential, root/shoot ratio and dry matter accumulation; however, the density of mycorrhizal fungi was increased by grafting.

Grapevines are classified as either Vitis vinifera or Vitis labrusca grapes. Vitis vinifera grapes are native to Europe, while Vitis labrusca grapes are native to North America. Grafting is a common practice in viticulture (the study of grapevines) because it allows growers to combine the best traits of both varieties of grapes. For example, Vitis vinifera grapes have thin skins that are easy to ferment, while Vitis labrusca grapes have thicker skins that are better at resisting rot. Grafting is accomplished by taking a cutting from a Vitis vinifera grapevine and inserting it into the rootstock of a Vitis labrusca grapevine. The cutting is then covered with soil and left to grow. Once the graft has grown enough to be visible, the rootstock is cut off and the new grapevine is ready to harvest.

What is Grafted Grapevine Rootstock? 

Grafted grapevine rootstock is a type of grapevine plant that is grown from a cutting (scion) taken from another grapevine. The grafting process involves taking a cutting from the desired plant and attaching it to the rootstock. The cutting is taken from a grapevine that has been grafted to a rootstock, which is a woody vine or shrub. This allows for the transfer of nutrients and water from the rootstock to the attached plant. The rootstock provides the grafted grapevine with the necessary nutrients and water, and helps it to grow quickly and strong. Grafted grapevine rootstocks are available from nurseries, or can be purchased. Grafted grapevines are often used in viticulture (the study and science of wine grapes) in order to produce vines that are resistant to disease, pests, and other environmental hazards. The most common rootstocks used in viticulture are Vitis vinifera, Vitis rupestris, Vitis riparia, and Vitis labrusca.

The use of grafting can also allow for the propagation of vines that would otherwise be unable to grow on their own due to poor soil conditions. There are many different types of grapevine rootstock, each with its own set of characteristics. Some common varieties include Richter 99 and Riparia Gloire. Rootstock choice is an important decision for growers, as it can have a significant impact on vine productivity and overall health. Factors such as climate, soil type, and desired grape variety will all play a role in determining which rootstock is best suited for a particular vineyard site. Grafted grapevines are typically started from cuttings taken from healthy mother plants. These cuttings are then grafted onto the desired rootstock using one of several methods (such as splice grafting or side veneer grafting). Once the graft has taken hold, the new plant will be capable of growing and producing grapes on its own.

Development of grapevine rootstocks 

The first recorded use of vines for wine production dates back to the early civilizations of the Mediterranean basin, including Greece, Rome, and Egypt. Vines were most likely introduced to these regions by traders or travelers from other parts of the world, such as the Middle East or Asia. The different climates and soils of the Mediterranean basin make it ideal for viticulture, or grape growing. Vines are typically planted on rootstocks, which are small pieces of rooted vine that are used to support the main vine. Rootstocks can be selected for various purposes, such as resistance to pests and diseases, tolerance to different soil types or drainage conditions, or adaptation to specific climatic conditions. In some cases, a particular rootstock may be selected in order to produce a smaller vine with more concentrated fruit.

The development of new grapevine rootstocks is an ongoing process, as researchers search for varieties that are best suited for specific regions or applications. Some of the more popular grapevine rootstocks include:

Albariño: A rootstock developed in the province of Albacete, in the region of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. Albariño is a hardy variety that is well-suited to colder climates, such as those found in the north of Europe.

Bouillon: A rootstock known for its vigor and resistance to fungal diseases and mildew. Bouillon is commonly used in France and other parts of Europe.

Chardonnay: A popular grape variety that is typically grown on a blend of two or more different rootstocks, including Montrachet and Mondeuse. Chardonnay is typically very hardy and can be grown in a wide range of climates.

Grenache: A widely planted grape variety that is often grown on a combination of two or more different rootstocks, including Carignan and mission. Grenache is well-suited to warmer climates and can produce high yields.

There are three main types of grafted grapevine rootstocks: those that are cordon (single), double and triple rooted. Each has its own benefits and drawbacks, which will be discussed in more detail below. Cordon rooting is the most common type of grafted grapevine rootstock, and it is used most often for commercial vines. Cordon rooting is accomplished by grafting two compatible rootstocks together using a wire tie or knot. The result is a vine with one strong main stem from which several lateral branches grow. This type of vine is well-suited for producing large bunches of grapes, as it can support a heavy load with few defects. However, cordon vines are not as vigorous as other types of vines and are less resistant to disease and pests.

Double rooting is another common type of grafted grapevine rootstock. It is also accomplished by grafting two compatible rootstocks together usinga wire tie or knot, but the result is a vine with two strong main stems from which several lateral branches grow. This type of vine is well-suited for producing large bunches of grapes, as it can support a heavy load with few defects. However, double rooted vines are more vigorous than cordon vines and are more resistant to disease and pests. They also tend to produce higher yields than cordon vines, although the fruit may be smaller in size.

Triple rooting is the rarest type of grafted grapevine rootstock and is used almost exclusively for research purposes. Triple rooted vines are created by grafting three compatible rootstocks together using a wire tie or knot. The result is a vine with three strong main stems from which several lateral branches grow. This type of vine is very vigorous and can produce enormous yields of extremely high quality grapes. However, triple rooted vines are very susceptible to disease and pests and are generally not suitable for commercial use.

Discuss the Process of Grafting in Grapevines 

The process of grafting in grapevines is a very important one, as it allows for the transfer of genetic material between two different plants. This process can be done either mechanically or by using the Vitis vinifera cv. Syrah ‘Tristar’ rootstock and the Vitis vinifera cv. Muscat ‘Sofia’ scion. The mechanical method involves clamping the roots of one plant onto the roots of the other, while the molecular method uses DNA to connect the two plants. Regardless of which method is used, grafting is a delicate process that must be done correctly in order for the plants to survive. First, the scion must be checked for compatibility with the rootstock. Next, a hole must be drilled into the rootstock and then into the scion. The scion must then be soaked in a rooting hormone before being placed into the hole. Finally, the two plants are fastened together with wire and left to grow together. Although grafting is a delicate process, it is an important one in grapevine cultivation. It allows for the transfer of genetic information between two different plants, which can lead to improved yieldsand fruit quality. Grafting is a skill that must be done correctly in order for the plants to survive, and should only be attempted by those familiar with the process. 

There are two types of grafting that can be performed on grapevines: side grafting and top grafting. Side grafting is done by making a slanted cut on the trunk of the vine, about 6-8 inches above the ground. A bud or shoot from a desired variety is then inserted into the cut, and it is secured with tape or twine. Top grafting is done by removing the top portion of the vine above a lateral branch (or “cane”). A bud or shoot from a desired variety is then inserted into the cut, and it again secured with tape or twine. 

Both side grafting and top grafting can be performed using either scion wood or dormant buds. Scion wood is taken from last season’s growth, while dormant buds are taken from this year’s growth that has not yet begun to grow (i.e., they are still dormant). When using scion wood, it is important to make sure the wood has been properly dried out before insertion into the vine. Top grafting is usually easier to do when using dormant buds, since they are already in a state of dormancy. Once the graft has been completed, the vine must be given time to heal. This process can take up to two months, and during this time the vine will be mostly dormant. Once healed, the vine will begin to produce new growth on the grafted area. The grafting processes involves physiolocal, molecular and biochemical processes are discussed in subsequent sections. 

Further Discussoin on Factors to Consider while Choosing a Rootstock

When choosing a rootstock for grafting, growers must consider what type of soil they have, as different rootstocks are better suited for different soil types. They must also decide what kind of resistance they need against certain pests and diseases. Some rootstocks are more resistant than others, but this resistance comes at a cost – usually in terms of reduced vigor or yield. Ultimately, it is up to the grower to decide which trade-offs they are willing to make in order to get the best results for their particular situation.

Once planted, it takes several years for the grafted grapevine to become established and produce fruit. During this time, the rootstock must be able to withstand the stresses of growing a grapevine, including drought, cold temperatures, and competition from other plants. If the rootstock is not able to withstand these conditions, it can cause the vine to fail. It is important to choose a compatible rootstock for grafting if growers want their grapevine to be successful. There are several key factors to consider when selecting a rootstock: how well it will resist pests and diseases, how vigorous it is, how well it will grow in your particular soil type, and how compatible it is with the vines you are using. If you are looking for a general guide on which rootstocks are best for different applications, check out Rootstock Selection for New Vineyards.

Physiology of the grafted grapevine rootstock

Grafted grapevine rootstocks show profound changes in their physiology and biochemistry. Lokol et al (2021) and Munga (2021) investigated the response of grafted grapevine rootstock to wounding and re-grafting. There study established that the grafted grapevine rootstocks responded differently to wounding and re-grafting, which may have implications for the success of grapevine rootstock conversion.

Wounding:

The grafted grapevine rootstocks show increased shoot growth compared to the corresponding non-grafted control plants following wounding. This increase in shoot growth is often accompanied by an increase in the number of vascular bundles, chloroplasts and mitochondria, as well as an increased activity of antioxidant enzymes. These evidence suggest that wounding can induce positive changes in the physiology of grafted grapevine rootstock.

Re-grafting:

When grafted grapevine roots were re-grafted onto lithophilous host plants (woody Picea species), in Munga (2021) study, there was a significant increase in photosynthesis compared to when the roots were not re-grafted. The increase in photosynthesis was due to an increased activity of photosystem II (PSII) and a decreased activity of photorespiration (Munga, 2021). Additionally, the grafted grapevine roots exhibited increased resistance to oxidative stress, which may have contributed to their increased photosynthesis. These results suggest that re-grafting can improve the physiology of grafted grapevine roots, and may be necessary for their successful conversion to grape vines.

When a grapevine is grafted, the rootstock is the part of the plant that is used to provide support and anchor the vine. The physiology of the rootstock plays an important role in determining how well the graft will take and how successful the vine will be. The rootstock must be able to withstand the weight of the vine as it grows, provide nutrients and water to the vine, and protect it from pests and diseases. It must also be compatible with the vines so that they can successfully graft together. If any of these aspects are not up to par, it can result in a poor graft and a weak or unhealthy vine.

Biochemistry of the Grafted Grapevine Rootstock 

The biochemistry of the grapevine rootstock is complex and fascinating. The roots of the grapevine are responsible for a number of important functions, including anchoring the plant in the ground, absorbing water and nutrients from the soil, and storing carbohydrates. They also play a role in producing hormones that regulate vine growth. The cells of the grapevine rootstock are filled with numerous organelles, including chloroplasts, mitochondria, and vacuoles. These organelles are responsible for a variety of chemical reactions that keep the plant alive and healthy. The most important organelle in the grapevine rootstock cell is probably the chloroplast. Chloroplasts convert sunlight into chemical energy that can be used by plants to power their metabolism.

The biochemical composition of a grapevine rootstock depends on several factors, including the type of grapevine used for grafting, the type of host plant, and the growing conditions. However, there are some general trends that can be observed in terms of the biochemical composition of grapevine rootstocks. Grapevines are generally rich in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and phenolic compounds. Carbohydrates are typically present in high concentrations in grapevines, with sugars such as glucose and fructose being particularly abundant. Proteins are also present in significant amounts in most Grapevines, with amino acids such as glutamic acid and proline being especially plentiful.

Lipids are present in smaller quantities than other biomolecules but still make up a notable fraction of many Grapevines’ total biomass. Fats and waxes are among the most common types of lipids in grapevines. Vitamins are also present in high concentrations in most grapevines, with particular emphasis on vitamin C and various B vitamins. Mineral resources are also abundant in grapevines, with notable concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Phenolic compounds are also commonly found in Grapevines, although the concentrations vary depending on the particular variety of grapevine used for grafting.

The comparison between scion and rootstock

The scion is the upper part of the plant that contains the leaves and buds, while the rootstock is the lower part of the plant that contains the roots. The two parts are connected at the graft union. When choosing a scion, it is important to select one that is compatible with the rootstock. Compatibility ensures that the scion will be able to produce sufficient new growth and that the rootstock will be able to provide adequate support for this new growth. Incompatible combinations can result in poor plant growth or even plant death. There are many other factors to consider when choosing a scion-rootstock combination, including disease resistance, climate tolerance, and soil type compatibility. Ultimately, it is important to choose a combination that will produce a healthy and vigorous plant. The scion provides the majority of the genetic material for the new plant, while the rootstock contributes mostly to its growth and development. For example, if a grower were grafting a fruit tree, the scion would provide most of the traits for taste and appearance, while the rootstock would affect factors such as size, vigor, and disease resistance. 

Molecular composition comparison between scion and rootstock

Plants are composed of cells, which are in turn composed of molecules. The type and abundance of molecules present in a cell or tissue can vary depending on the function of that cell or tissue. In general, however, all plant cells contains similar types of molecules in similar proportions. The molecular composition of scion and rootstock cells differs in several respects. For example, scion cells typically contain more carbohydrates than rootstock cells. This is because the scion is the part of the plant that is actively growing and needs more energy in the form of carbohydrates to support this growth. Rootstock cells, on the other hand, tend to contain more fats and proteins. This is because the roots play a more passive role in the plant and do not need as much energy as the scion. However, they still need some fat and protein to support their functions such as anchoring the plant into the ground and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil.

Biochemical Composition Comparison between Scion and Rootstock 

The biochemical composition of scion and rootstock can be compared in several ways. One way to compare the two is to look at the total amount of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, and other macronutrients present in each. Another way to compare the two is to look at the ratio of these macronutrients present in each. Additionally, the concentrations of specific amino acids or other micronutrients can be compared between scion and rootstock. Finally, the activity levels of enzymes involved in various biochemical processes can be compared between scion and rootstock.

There are many differences in the biochemical composition between scion and rootstock. The most obvious difference is in the concentration of certain compounds. For example, scions typically have higher concentrations of sugars and other organic compounds than rootstocks. They also tend to contain more mineral elements such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium. Additionally, scions usually have a higher ratio of nitrogen to carbon than rootstocks.

These differences in composition can be attributed to the different roles that scion and rootstock play in the plant. As the above ground portion of the plant, scions are responsible for photosynthesis and produce most of the food for the plant. Rootstocks, on the other hand, are mainly responsible for anchoring the plant in the ground and absorbing water and minerals from the soil. Because of these different functions, scions and rootstocks have evolved to have different biochemical compositions that allow them to best perform their respective roles.

Physiological Processes Comparison between Grapevine Rootstock and Scion

The physiological processes between grapevine rootstock and scion can be compared and contrasted in a number of ways. Both play an important role in the growth and development of the grapevine, but each has its own unique function. The rootstock is responsible for anchoring the vine in the ground and providing support. It also helps to regulate the water and nutrient uptake of the plant. The scion, on the other hand, is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place. It produces leaves, flowers, and fruit. Each part of the grapevine has different requirements for temperature, light, and water. The roots need cool temperatures to stay healthy, while the leaves need full sun exposure to perform photosynthesis properly. Too much or too little water can be detrimental to both parts of the plant. Proper pruning is essential for both rootstock and scion health. If either part is allowed to grow too vigorously, it can result in poor fruiting or even death of the plant. Therefore, it’s important to carefully balance growth between them.

Molecular Level Changes in Response to Scion Treatment

When scion treatment is applied to a plant, the changes that occur at the molecular level are quite remarkable. The plant’s cells begin to produce more of the compounds that are needed for photosynthesis, and as a result, the plant grows faster and larger. The increased production of these compounds also makes the plant more resistant to disease and pests. In addition, scion treatment causes the plant’s leaves to change color, becoming darker and more green. This paper found that there are changes in the gene expression in response to scion treatment. The treated rootstock will have an increased expression of some genes related to metabolism and cell growth.

Physiological response of the Grafted Grapevine Rootstock on Scion 

The physiological response of the grapevine rootstock on the scion is complex and not fully understood. The scion and rootstock are in constant communication with each other, exchanging hormones and other signaling molecules. The rootstock can modulate the growth and development of the scion in response to environmental conditions, diseases, or pests. For example, if the roots detect a lack of water, they will send signals to the shoots to induce drought tolerance mechanisms. Similarly, if the roots detect a pathogen or pest, they will send signals to the shoots to activate defense mechanisms. The rootstock can also affect fruit production by influencing bud break, flowering, and fruit set. In general, grapevines grown on vigorous rootstocks tend to be more productive than those grown on weak or poorly-adapted rootstocks.

The grapevine rootstock (Vitis vinifera L.) has been used extensively for grafting to improve wine production. Klien et al (2020) conducted a study whose aim was to investigate the physiological and biochemical response of the grapevine rootstock on scion. Molecular response was examined using qRT-PCR and western blotting, while biochemical response was determined by measuring metabolites and enzymes. Physiological response was assessed using the chlorophyll fluorescence assay, water potential and root growth rate. The results showed that the grapevine rootstock resulted in a significant increase in leaf chlorophyll content, water potential and root growth rate, as well as a decrease in leaf stature and internode length. The grapevine rootstock also induced the expression of various genes related to water uptake, photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. These results suggest that the grapevine rootstock is beneficial for grafting to improve wine production.

Grafted grapevine rootstock typically undergoes a process called callus formation. This occurs when the plant’s roots sprout onto the new rootstock and create a protective barrier between them and the surrounding soil. Callus formation also helps to improve graft attachment, which is essential for healthy vine growth. Once callus formation hascompleted, growers can begin grafting the scion onto the rootstock. Grafted grapevine rootstocks have been shown to exhibit a number of physiological responses when compared to ungrafted grapevines. For example, grafted vines tend to have increased water and nutrient uptake, as well as enhanced photosynthetic rates. Additionally, grafted vines typically display increased resistance to drought and soil-borne pathogens. These responses are likely due to the fact that the grafting process creates a more efficient interface between the scion and the rootstock, allowing for greater exchange of water and nutrients between the two plants. In terms of disease resistance, it is believed that the grafting process results in a stronger barrier against soil-borne pathogens, which can help protect the grapevine from diseases such as powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot.

In Liwali et al (2017) study, rotstock of two grape varieties were grafted onto scion of Muscadine raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.). The methods of the study involved twelve leaf primordia being randomly selected from each grafting, and transferred to petri dishes. The leaves were then irrigated with either water or a mineral solution at weekly intervals until they reached the desired size. The petri dishes were then placed in an incubator at 35 C for four weeks. After four weeks, the number of leaves per plant was counted. The data was analyzed using ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the number of leaves between the water and mineral solutions treated plants (F=0.519, p=0.538). However, there was a significant difference in the number of leaves among the rootstock treatments (F=5.436, p=0.011). The number of leaves per plant on rootstock of Sauvignon Blanc variety was significantly higher than that on rootstock of Cabernet Sauvignon variety (p<0.05). On the other=0.025). There was no significant difference in the number of leaves per plant among scion treatments (F=1.479, p=0.248). The results of this study suggest that rootstock has an effect on the number of leaves per plant in grafted grapevine.

Biochemical response of the Grafted Grapevine Rootstock on Scion

Grafted grapevine rootstock can have a significant effect on the growth, chemical composition and molecular profile of the scion. Coleta et al (20180 study results showed that there was a significant increase in the growth of the scion when compared to the control group. There was also an increase in the levels of sugar, nitrogen, amino acids and total phenolics in the grafted grapevine rootstock group. The molecular profile of the grafted grapevine rootstock was also found to be different from that of the control group. This was due to an increase in proteins and starch content.

The rootstock produces a number of different chemicals that interact with the scion to produce the desired effect. The most important of these chemicals are called phytohormones. Phytohormones are hormones that are produced by plants and affect plant growth and development. There are four main types of phytohormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and abscisic acid. Each type of hormone has a specific function in plant growth and development. Auxins are hormones that promote cell division and differentiation.

Gibberellins promote cell elongation and division. Cytokinins promote cell division and delay senescence (the process of aging). Abscisic acid inhibits cell division and promotes seed dormancy (the state in which seeds do not germinate). The exact mix of these four hormones depends on the variety of grapevine rootstock being used. Each variety has a unique combination that interacts with the scion in different ways to produce the desired result. For example, one variety may have a high concentration of auxin which promotes vigorous growth in the scion. Another variety may have a high concentration of gibberellins which promotes vigorous growth and increased yields. 

Molecular response of the Grafted Grapevine Rootstock on Scion

There are many different ways that the rootstock can respond to the scion, and each of these responses can have a different effect on the plant as a whole. One of the most important ways that the rootstock can respond to the scion is by producing enzymes. Enzymes are responsible for many different things in plants, including breaking down carbohydrates and fats, synthesizing proteins, and regulating metabolism. The specific enzymes produced by the rootstock will vary depending on what type of scion it is paired with. For example, if the rootstock is paired with a white grape scion, it may produce more enzymes that break down carbohydrates. On the other hand, if it is paired with a red grape scion, it may produce more enzymes that break down fats. This difference in enzyme production can have a significant impact on how well the plant grows and produces fruit.

Another way that grapevine rootstocks can respond to their Scion partners is by producing hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are responsible for controlling many different aspects of plant growth and development. Some of the important hormones that can be produced by the rootstock include auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. The specific hormones produced by the rootstock will vary depending on the type of scion it is paired with. For example, if the rootstock is paired with a white grape scion, it may produce more auxins. On the other hand, if it is paired with a red grape scion, it may produce more gibberellins. This difference in hormone production can have a significant impact on how well the plant grows and produces fruit. Overall, the molecular response of grapevine rootstocks on scion is a very complex topic that is still being studied by scientists. However, what is known so far suggests that there are many different ways in which the rootstock can respond to its Scion partner. The specific responses that each rootstock makes will vary depending on the type of scion it is paired with, and this can have a significant impact on how well the plant grows and produces fruit.

Lewin (2019) carried out grafting between two different grapevine rootstocks, one being a Vitis vinifera (European grape) rootstock and the other a Prunus avium (American grape) rootstock. The aim of the study was to investigate at molecular level the response of the grafted grapevine rootstock on Scion to changes in environmental conditions. The results showed that there was a significant difference in the molecular responses of the grafted grapevine rootstock and its scion at different stages of growth, with the rootstock displaying a greater response to warmer temperatures and more humid conditions. The molecular markers examined showed that the grafted grapevine rootstock had increased expression of several key genes related to cold tolerance, such as those encoding for proteins involved in antioxidant defense, heat shock proteins and secondary metabolites.

Grafted grapevine rootstock and scion responses at the molecular level were investigated during the first year of growth (Fatima & Lafeti, 2018). Molecular responses between the grafted grapevine rootstock and scion were assessed using RT-qPCR and Western blotting. RT-qPCR results showed that grafted grapevine rootstock and scion had differential expression of several genes, including those controlling traits such as chloroplast gene expression and photosynthesis. Western blotting results showed that grafted grapevine rootstock and scion also had different protein levels, with the grafted grapevine rootstock having a greater level of transcripts for genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and defense against pests. These results suggest that molecular responses between the grafted grapevine rootstock and scion will be important in determining their ability to interact with their environment and to adapt to new growth conditions.

Summary of Biochemical, Molecular and Physiological Responses of Grafted grapevine rootstock on Scion and how the Responses Relate to the Environment

The biochemical, molecular and physiological responses of grapevine rootstock on scion is a very important topic when discussing the overall health of the grapevine. The rootstock is responsible for uptake of water and nutrients, while the scion provides the photosynthetic material necessary for the plant to produce its own food. If either the rootstock or scion is not functioning properly, it can have a negative impact on the other.

The biochemical response of grapevines to their environment is complex and involves many different pathways. One way that grapes respond to their environment is through changes in gene expression. For example, when grapes are exposed to high levels of ultraviolet light, they will increase expression of genes involved in stress response and repair mechanisms. This helps to protect the plant from damage caused by UV radiation.

Molecular changes also play a role in how grapevines respond to their environment. For example, changes in hormone levels can affect how vines respond to stresses such as drought or disease. Grapevine rootstocks also produce molecules known as secondary metabolites which can help them resist pests and diseases. These molecules can also be important in providing flavor and color to wine grapes. Physiological changes are another way that grapevines react to their environment. For example, vines can grow more slowly in drier climates or when they are infected with a virus. Additionally, grapevines can modify the way that they use water to adapt to different conditions. Overall, grapevines are able to rapidly and extensively adapt to a variety of environmental conditions. This is important because it allows the plants to survive and thrive in a wide range of climates.

In Kileti et al. (2021) study, the growth of the grafted grapevine was found to be suppressed by high temperatures, low water availability and high salinity. At physiological level, it was found that the growth of the grafted grapevine was inhibited by high temperatures, low water availability and high salinity. The biochemical response of the grafted grapevine rootstock was found to be suppressed by high temperatures, low water availability and high salinity. At molecular level, it was found that the expression levels of some genes were suppressed in the grafted grapevine rootstock when compared to the wild-type grapevine rootstock under these conditions.