Brief explanation

Theory in TI

Hypothesis

 

Culture

It is a set of beliefs and values or a collection of learned behavior that people in a particular society share with others, giving them a sense of identity and belongingness (Harrison & Skrebneva, 2020). Collins and Callaghan (2022) described a culture from a practical online interaction perspective as a complex construct capturing group/societal values, behavioral patterns, and communication styles. Culture considerably impacts online learning environments’ use, design, and intention. For example, it is probable that there is a preference for online learning in societies where gender segregation is strictly imposed on people. Most of Omani colleges and universities do not enforce gender segregation, however, students still have a tendency to separate themselves. Thus, it is important to study how these students feel about Online learning, and whether or not they prefer it over conventual learning settings. The preference for online learning based on cultural reasons can probably affect the performance of students in online assessments, providing an insight about Online Proctoring and to what extent it is achieving academic integrity.

·         Social construction of technology (SCOT)   

 

·         The theory underpinning the construct of religion is the secularization theory (Stolz & Tanner, 2019). This theory holds that increasing educational status/levels, alongside the proliferation of technology, results in a more cynical attitude and undermining of religious practices and belief systems.

 

 

The aim of this study is to determine whether online proctoring can be used to improve the quality of assessments in an Omani educational institute in order to ensure that the examiners are able to capture the actual performance and potential of the students.

To achieve the research purpose, this study formulates the following hypothesis:

H1: Perceived improved performance will lead to effective adoption of OP in the corporate context. H2: User acceptance will contribute positively to the adoption of OP in the corporate context.

 

 

Educational background

The proposition of using online proctoring is profoundly entrenched in a challenging and authoritarian/controlling educational background. For decades, the educational technology field has strived to subvert that phenomenon.

With the development of technology enabling escalated online contexts interactions, distance education premises have been reconsidered that enhance learners’ self-direction and independence (Andrade, 2018). The level of education, and country where academic degrees were granted, might determine how seriously students take online assessments. 

 

 

 

 

Distance Learning Theory and DeLone and McLean Model

 

 

 

Computer literacy

Computer literacy could be described as one’s ability to create, integrate, understand, manage, assess and create information aptly and safely through digital technologies. Computer literacy skills are essential when scholars want to perform in the online examination. According to AlSheikhTheeb et al. (2022), learners should possess such skills for online examinations to evaluate or assess the concrete knowledge of the primary content that learners are to be tested. However, computer literacy is unevenly distributed across various disadvantage indicators, like educational background, income level, residential area (rural versus urban), or disability. Therefore, a learner’s previous exposure to IT enhances his competence and ability to perform better in online exams than others.

 

Transactional Distance Theory

It holds that the essential ability and learners’ competence interact with technology impedes or facilitates other interactions, influencing their learning profoundly (Abuhassna et al., 2020).

 

 

Language

Oman’s populations use classic Arabic as their first language and English as their second language. Nevertheless, most courses in Oman region are taught in English. Several researchers have studied the viability of online teaching in the context of English language learners and the evaluation of instructors’ and learners’ perspectives with online examinations (Alyahya & Almutairi, 2019). The study revealed the pleasantness and acceptability of faculty members and students with online assessments where the participants applied the English language. English is the primary language of instruction in Oman, particularly in higher education, yet most students are not fluent in English. When taking into account the level of their fluency while studying the effect of Online Proctoring, different conclusions could be reached regarding OP.

The constructivist learning theory best applies to online learning. It holds that learners encode and interpret information based on their experiences and individual perceptions. Contrary to the teacher-centred theory, constructivism comprises teacher guidance and learner interaction (Andrade, 2018). 

 

 

 The Conceptual FrameworkThe proposed online examination model comprises of two modules: online examination system enablers and the authentication and continuous monitoring.Authentication and continuous monitoring moduleThis element enrolls, authorizes and monitors the students continuously taking their exams for real time inspection and support of fraudulent activities.Student enrolment and standardizationThe study proposes the adoption of multimodal biometrics for authorizing the users Face recognition and fingerprints are used for authorization.Figure 1: Exam registrationStudent authenticationStudents login through password and username. Then audio, video, and bandwidth tests follows. Students then download, install and open an application that gives remote access to their desktop, audio and webcam. Authentication can be done through webcam at this point. Remote proctor then confirms the presented ID details against registered exam details. Student further confirm deals via facial recognition and fingerprint system. Figure 2: Exam authentication steps Continuous monitoring and terminationThis study recommends the adoption of real-time automated background sound checks, time delays, facial recognition, holding ID against the student face pause, and head pose for continued monitoring. Additionally, the exam platform need to use and an advanced lockdown browser like the Respondus that controls the software that can be accessed by the learners during their exams.Figure 3: Continuous monitoring activities   ReferencesAbuhassna, H., Al-Rahmi, W. M., Yahya, N., Zakaria, M. A. Z. M., Kosnin, A. B., & Darwish, M. (2020). Development of a new model on utilizing online learning platforms to improve students’ academic achievements and satisfaction. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00216-zAlSheikhTheeb, T., Sahin, A., Abdelrahman, S., Chuang, R., Affolter, F., Al Mekdad, B., … & Shequem, Y. (2022). Online Examinations in Emergency Contexts: Can Proctoring and Other Technologies Be Feasible Alternatives for Facilitating Inclusive School Exams for All in Emergency Contexts? (No. 41). EdTech Hub. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6929534Alyahya, D., & Almutairi, N. (2019). The Impact of Electronic Tests on Students’ Performance Assessment. International Education Studies, 12(5), 109-119.Andrade, M. S. (2018). Online English Language Learning: Theory-Based Course Design and Pedagogy. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(3), 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/jets.v5i3.2058Bedford, D. W., Gregg, J. R., & Clinton, M. S. (2011). Preventing online cheating with technology: A pilot study of remote proctor and an update of its use. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 11(2), 41-59.Collins, H., & Callaghan, D. (2022). What a difference a zoom makes: Intercultural interactions between host and international students. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v14i2.4300Harrison, N., & Skrebneva, I. (2020). A country as pedagogical: enacting an Australian foundation for culturally responsive pedagogy. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 52(1), 15-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2019.1641843Ngqondi, T., Maoneke, P. B., & Mauwa, H. (2021). A secure online exams conceptual framework for South African universities. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100132. Raji, I. D., Gebru, T., Mitchell, M., Buolamwini, J., Lee, J., & Denton, E. (2020, February). Saving face: Investigating the ethical concerns of facial recognition auditing. In Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society (pp. 145-151). https://doi.org/10.1145/3375627.3375820Stolz, J., & Tanner, P. (2019). Secularization, Secularity, and Secularism in the New Millennium: Macro-Theories and Research. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.792