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  1. How did William James incorporate evolutionary theory into psychology?
  2. What did Dewey mean in the reflex arc article when he said mental content (ideas) have to be understood in the larger context of adaptation.?
  3. Compare James’ theory of emotion to the common sense theory.
  4. What five adjectives did James use to describe consciousness?
  5. What did G.S. Hall do first in psychology? (he did more than one thing first)
  6. Who was Mary Whiton Calkins? Who did she work with and how was she treated by the Harvard administration.
  7. What is the law of effect? In what way does it foreshadow behaviorism without really being behavioristic.?
  8. Contrast Francis Sumner with Kenneth Clark. What role do they play in 20th century U. S. History?
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Sample Answer

William James

James incorporated evolutionary theory into psychology by viewing the mind as a product of evolution. He argued that mental processes, such as perception, memory, and emotion, evolved to help us adapt to our environment. For example, James argued that the emotion of fear evolved to help us avoid danger.

Dewey’s Reflex Arc Article

In his reflex arc article, Dewey argued that mental content (ideas) have to be understood in the larger context of adaptation. This means that we cannot understand the meaning of an idea without considering the context in which it is used. For example, the idea of “food” has a different meaning in a situation where we are hungry than in a situation where we are not hungry.

Common Sense Theory of Emotion

The common sense theory of emotion is the view that emotions are caused by internal physiological changes. For example, the common sense theory of emotion would say that we feel fear because our heart starts to race and our palms start to sweat.

Full Answer Section

James’ Theory of Emotion

James’ theory of emotion is the view that emotions are caused by our interpretation of our physiological changes. For example, James’ theory of emotion would say that we feel fear because we interpret our racing heart and sweaty palms as signs that we are in danger.

James’ Five Adjectives to Describe Consciousness

James used the following five adjectives to describe consciousness:

  • Personal: Consciousness is a subjective experience that is unique to each individual.
  • Continuous: Consciousness is a continuous stream of experience that does not have any breaks in it.
  • Selective: Consciousness is selective in that it focuses on some aspects of our experience and ignores others.
  • Intentional: Consciousness is intentional in that it is directed towards objects and events in the world around us.
  • Transient: Consciousness is transient in that it is constantly changing.

G. Stanley Hall

G. Stanley Hall was the first person to hold a Ph.D. in psychology, and he was the first president of the American Psychological Association. He was also one of the founders of the child study movement.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins was a pioneer in psychology who made significant contributions to the fields of memory, self-psychology, and emotion. She worked with William James and Hugo Münsterberg at Harvard, but she was denied a Ph.D. because she was a woman.

Law of Effect

The law of effect is a principle of learning that states that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. The law of effect foreshadows behaviorism without really being behavioristic because it emphasizes the importance of consequences in determining behavior.

Francis Sumner and Kenneth Clark

Francis Sumner was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. He was a student of G. Stanley Hall and a mentor to Kenneth Clark.

Kenneth Clark was a psychologist who is best known for his research on race and prejudice. He is also known for his work on the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case, which ruled that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

Role of Sumner and Clark in 20th Century U.S. History

Sumner and Clark played an important role in 20th century U.S. history by their work on race and prejudice. Sumner’s work helped to pave the way for other African American psychologists, and Clark’s work helped to advance the civil rights movement.

Conclusion

William James, John Dewey, Mary Whiton Calkins, Francis Sumner, and Kenneth Clark were all important figures in the history of psychology. They made significant contributions to the field and helped to shape our understanding of the human mind.

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